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tcmzuerichenge · 24 days ago

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Understanding Microplate Readers for Absorbance: Principles, Applications, and Innovations

Microplate readers have become indispensable tools in modern laboratories, providing rapid and accurate analysis for a wide range of biological and chemical assays. Among the different detection modes available in microplate readers, absorbance is one of the most commonly used and foundational techniques. This article explores the principles behind absorbance-based microplate readers, their applications, key components, and recent innovations that have enhanced their capabilities.

What Are Microplate Readers? A microplate reader, also known as a plate reader, is a laboratory instrument used to detect biological, chemical, or physical events of samples in microtiter plates These microplate readers absorbance have become indispensable tools in modern laboratories, providing rapid and accurate analysis for a wide range of biological and chemical assays. Among the different detection modes available in microplate readers, absorbance is one of the most commonly used and foundational techniques. This article explores the principles behind absorbance-based microplate readers, their applications, key components, and recent innovations that have enhanced their capabilities.

What Are Microplate Readers? A microplate reader, also known as a plate reader, is a laboratory instrument used to detect biological, chemical, or physical events of samples in microtiter plates. These plates typically contain 6 to 1536 wells, with 96-well and 384-well plates being the most common. The device automates and quantifies readings across many samples simultaneously, dramatically increasing throughput and reproducibility in experimental procedures.

Principle of Absorbance in Microplate Readers Absorbance, or optical density (OD), refers to the measurement of light absorbed by a solution. When light passes through a sample, some wavelengths are absorbed by molecules within the sample, while others pass through. The amount of light absorbed at a specific wavelength correlates directly with the concentration of the absorbing species, according to Beer-Lambert’s Law:

A = εlc

Where:

A is absorbance,

ε is the molar extinction coefficient,

l is the path length of the sample, and

c is the concentration of the compound.

In a microplate reader, a light source emits a specific wavelength through each well of the microplate. Detectors measure how much light passes through the sample, and the absorbance value is calculated based on the difference between the emitted and detected light intensities.

Components of an Absorbance Microplate Reader Light Source: Commonly used light sources include halogen and xenon lamps, which cover a broad range of wavelengths from UV to visible light.

Optical Filters or Monochromators: These components select the specific wavelength of light to be directed through the sample. Monochromators offer greater flexibility and precision by allowing continuous wavelength selection.

Microplate Stage: Holds and positions the microplate accurately under the light path.

Detector: Typically a photodiode or photomultiplier tube that measures transmitted light intensity.

Software Interface: Controls the instrument and analyzes the data, providing results in real-time and enabling data export and visualization.

Common Applications of Absorbance Microplate Readers Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assays (ELISA): ELISAs are perhaps the most well-known use of absorbance plate readers, enabling quantification of proteins, antibodies, and hormones.

Cell Viability and Proliferation Assays: Assays like MTT, XTT, and WST rely on colorimetric changes to assess cell metabolic activity.

Protein and Nucleic Acid Quantification: Using colorimetric reagents, absorbance can determine concentrations of DNA, RNA, or proteins in samples.

Kinetic Studies: Absorbance readers can monitor reaction progress over time, useful for enzyme kinetics and time-course studies.

Microbial Growth Monitoring: Bacterial cultures in liquid media can be monitored in real-time by measuring optical density at 600 nm (OD600).

Advantages of Using Absorbance-Based Microplate Readers High Throughput: Ability to analyze dozens to thousands of samples simultaneously. Speed and Efficiency: Rapid data acquisition compared to manual techniques. Reproducibility: Automated systems reduce human error. Versatility: Suitable for a wide variety of assays and applications.

Innovations and Trends Modern absorbance microplate readers have evolved with several innovative features microplate readers absorbance Combine absorbance with fluorescence, luminescence, and other detection modes in a single device, expanding functionality. High-Sensitivity Optics: Improved light sources and detectors offer better sensitivity and precision.

#bertholdt x reader

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sarallokesh37 · 1 month ago

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Innovative Chemistry IA Ideas for IB Students: A Comprehensive Guide

The Internal Assessment (IA) for Chemistry in the International Baccalaureate (IB) is a vital component of the overall grade, contributing significantly to a student’s final score. As part of the IB Chemistry syllabus, the IA provides students with an opportunity to explore real-world scientific concepts and demonstrate their investigative skills. Selecting an innovative and engaging Chemistry IA ideas is crucial, as it not only makes the research process more interesting but also allows students to produce a high-quality report that can set them apart from their peers. In this article, we will delve into some creative and challenging Chemistry IA ideas that will inspire you to embark on your scientific journey.

The Importance of Choosing the Right Chemistry IA Idea

Your Chemistry IA is an independent investigation that requires you to formulate a research question, design and perform experiments, collect data, and analyze results. It is assessed based on several criteria, including personal engagement, exploration, analysis, evaluation, and communication. Choosing the right topic for your IA is crucial because it should:

Be aligned with the IB Chemistry syllabus.

Allow you to explore a scientific concept in depth.

Be feasible within the available time and resources.

Encourage critical thinking and creativity.

Be manageable in terms of data collection and analysis.

Selecting the right Chemistry IA ideas that strikes the balance between complexity and practicality is key to achieving a high score.

Top Chemistry IA Ideas to Consider

1. Effect of Temperature on the Rate of Reaction

One classic experiment that forms the foundation for many Chemistry IA ideas is investigating the relationship between temperature and reaction rate. Students can explore how the rate of reaction of a specific chemical process, such as the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide or the reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium thiosulfate, changes with temperature. By varying the temperature and measuring the time it takes for the reaction to complete, students can determine the activation energy and evaluate how temperature affects reaction kinetics. This is a well-established area of study that aligns well with the IB Chemistry syllabus.

2. Investigating the Relationship Between Concentration and Rate of Reaction

Another popular Chemistry IA idea is to examine how changes in concentration affect the rate of a chemical reaction. For example, students can investigate the effect of varying concentrations of reactants like sodium thiosulfate and hydrochloric acid on the rate of reaction. By manipulating the concentration and measuring the time taken for a visible change (such as the formation of a precipitate), students can derive a rate law and explore how concentration influences reaction rate. This experiment provides valuable insights into chemical kinetics and equilibrium, core concepts of the IB Chemistry course.

3. Analyzing the Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions, and their activity is influenced by factors such as temperature and pH. A fascinating Chemistry IA idea could involve investigating how varying pH levels impact the activity of enzymes like catalase or amylase. For example, students can measure the rate of oxygen production from the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide by catalase at different pH levels. This experiment explores both chemistry and biology, allowing students to demonstrate their understanding of enzyme kinetics and the pH-dependent nature of enzyme activity.

4. Determining the Peroxide Value in Cooking Oils

Another excellent Chemistry IA idea involves determining the peroxide value in various cooking oils after repeated frying. The peroxide value is a measure of the degree of oxidation in oils and fats, and it is important in food chemistry. Students can conduct titrations to quantify the peroxide value in oils after frying them multiple times. This experiment not only ties into the concepts of oxidation and reduction but also allows students to apply chemical principles to everyday life. It is also a unique topic that demonstrates a practical application of chemistry in the food industry.

5. The Effect of Metal Ions on the Rate of Corrosion

Corrosion, especially the rusting of iron, is a significant topic in both chemistry and materials science. Investigating how different metal ions, such as copper or zinc, affect the rate of iron corrosion could be an engaging Chemistry IA idea. Students can set up controlled experiments to observe the impact of various environmental factors (such as pH, temperature, and concentration of metal ions) on the corrosion rate. This experiment ties into the concepts of redox reactions, electrochemistry, and materials chemistry, making it an excellent choice for students looking to explore these areas in more depth.

6. Investigating the Effect of Light on the Degradation of Vitamin C

Vitamin C is an essential nutrient, and its degradation can be influenced by environmental factors such as light and temperature. A student can design an experiment to investigate how exposure to different light intensities or wavelengths affects the degradation of Vitamin C in fruit juices or tablets. This experiment provides an opportunity to discuss reaction rates, light-sensitive reactions, and chemical degradation. It also aligns well with the IB Chemistry syllabus by integrating concepts of organic chemistry and chemical kinetics.

7. Exploring the Role of Catalysts in Reaction Rates

Catalysts play an essential role in many chemical processes by speeding up reactions without being consumed in the process. A Chemistry IA idea could involve investigating how different catalysts, such as enzymes or transition metal complexes, affect the rate of a specific chemical reaction. For example, students can measure how the presence of different metal catalysts influences the reaction between hydrogen peroxide and potassium permanganate. This experiment is an excellent opportunity to explore the mechanism of catalysis and its practical applications in industry.

8. Comparing the Effectiveness of Different Antacids

The effectiveness of antacids in neutralizing stomach acid is a practical and relatable Chemistry IA idea. Students can design an experiment to compare the neutralizing capacities of different antacid tablets by measuring the volume of acid neutralized over time. This experiment can involve titration methods, allowing students to explore concepts such as acid-base neutralization, stoichiometry, and solution concentrations. It also provides students with an opportunity to connect chemistry concepts with real-life applications in healthcare and digestion.

9. Investigating the Factors Affecting the Solubility of Salts

Solubility is an important concept in chemistry, and understanding how various factors such as temperature and ionic strength affect solubility can lead to an engaging Chemistry IA idea. Students can investigate how temperature influences the solubility of salts like potassium nitrate or sodium chloride by preparing saturated solutions at different temperatures and determining the amount of solute that dissolves. This experiment touches on concepts of solubility equilibrium, colligative properties, and the interactions between solute and solvent.

Conclusion

Choosing the right Chemistry IA ideas is a crucial step in ensuring a successful investigation. Whether you’re interested in reaction kinetics, enzyme activity, corrosion, or practical applications in food and health, there are countless possibilities for crafting an engaging and high-quality Chemistry IA. By selecting a topic that aligns with your interests and the IB Chemistry syllabus, you can demonstrate your scientific inquiry skills and produce a top-notch report. The key is to choose a project that is not only feasible and interesting but also allows you to apply the core concepts of chemistry in an innovative and meaningful way.

Please visit site for further queries:https://www.tychr.com/50-ib-chemistry-ia-ideas-new-ia-ideas-for-ib-chemistry

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nancygduarteus · 8 years ago

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Can Your DNA Tell You the Healthiest Way to Live Your Life?

A double helix begins to swirl on my screen after I upload the raw data from my 23andMe genetic test to a site called DNA Lifestyle Coach. An ethnically ambiguous illustrated girl greets me, gleefully eating a bowl of vegetables while holding her cell phone. Against a salmon-colored backdrop are the words: “MY DIET COACH,” offering a health plan “tailored” to my genetics.

Here is what the DNA Lifestyle Coach, run by a company called Titanovo, promises: For between $215 and $320, it will send you a saliva kit and analyze your genes to determine how you should best live your life for optimal mental and physical health, as well as optimal dental and skin care. For another $150 it will measure the length of your telomeres (the protective caps on the ends of our chromosomes, which typically shrink as we get older and are being studied to understand aging), to help you assess your longevity. You can also bypass Titanovo’s DNA test and instead merge data you’ve already received from 23andMe (as I did) or another testing company.

DNA Lifestyle Coach is one in a batch of companies that has emerged in recent years, promising to pare down confusing personal DNA data reports, using science, leaving you instead with a simple set of bullet points for how to live healthier, happier, stronger, smarter, longer.

There’s DNAFit. And Kinetic Diagnostics. And even a “genetic superhero test” by Orig3n, which makes DNA-based predictions about your strength, intelligence, and speed. Most of these are aimed at boosting athletic and physical performance and preventing sports-related injuries. But DNA Lifestyle Coach ventures into cosmetic and stress-reduction advice, seeking to answer questions like: What can our genes tell us about how we can sleep better? What secrets does my DNA hold about preventing aging?

As I begin to read my report, DNA Lifestyle Coach informs me: “Your genetics infer that you will struggle to lose weight more than most, so your caloric cut should be strict.” When dieting, it says, I should aim to take in 600 fewer calories a day.

At first glance, this information does not feel more enlightening than any other diet or fitness plan I have ever tried in my life. Plug my weight, height, BMI numbers and heart rate averages into apps like MyFitnessPal or Fitbit and each one will spit out similar estimates. Tell me something I don’t know. Then, it does.

According to my genes, it says up to three cups of coffee per day could be beneficial, but does not give any details as to those benefits. And the psychological effects of caffeine are supposedly less pronounced for me, which means I’m able to sleep after a couple hours even when having coffee at night. It also predicts that I sober up after alcohol quicker than most. Great! More coffee? Less intoxication? All from my genes?

It gets better. Apparently, I have awesome endurance. Like marathon runner-level endurance (if I wanted to be a professional athlete). And my DNA Lifestyle Coach says I push myself in exercise and competition. That is because I don’t have any risk for “over-anxiety,” or other “negative emotions.” I don’t think my husband would agree. But whatever. I am starting to like my genes even more.

Feeling emboldened, I sign up for the company’s telomere test, which requires sending more of my spit away in the mail. It will take several weeks to get the results back, but I have a feeling the test is going to tell me I have robust telomeres too, and that I am going to live a long, long time. It is all beginning to feel a lot like that time I had my palms read on a street corner in the French Quarter in New Orleans.

But those feel-good endorphins that come along with being told you’re superior can fade fast, and one need only dig down into the data to figure out that such an inflated sense of personal biology may not be much more than an illusion.

“You have to know, this is like the stuff you see on TV after midnight,” Stuart K. Kim tells me after I share my DNA Lifestyle Coach site password and complete health profile results with him. He’s a professor emeritus in the developmental biology and genetics program at Stanford University. “Weight loss kind of stuff, anti-aging kind of stuff. It’s pretty far out there.”

I stay on the phone with Kim as he and I click on the little information bubbles in my report next to suggestions for carbs, fats, fiber, water intake, vitamins, gluten, and lactose. In each category, the report highlights my genes and SNPs in those gene sequences (single-nucleotide polymorphisms, pronounced “snips,” which are alternative spellings of genes that come down to a one letter difference. That one letter may lead to the gene functioning differently). With each SNP comes a link to an abstract for a published academic paper (most behind a paywall) explaining how it might be associated with health.

Kim goes a step further for me. Using his own academic accounts, he kindly pulls up and reviews the studies. He gives the company credit for posting the links to the papers in the first place—allowing customers to check out some of the conclusions if they choose. “It is buyer beware. You can’t just take everything at face value.”

Problem is, as Kim begins to interpret the papers on my DNA Lifestyle Coach report in connection to my own SNPs, he can’t even make sense of it all. Kim has served as an editor of PLOS Genetics, as well as on the National Science Advisory Council. He even developed his own DNA interpretation site for a Stanford class he taught on genetics, which students (or the public) can use for free.

On the DNA Lifestyle Coach site, my SNPs + the studies = conclusions like: Your eating behavior is 50 percent likely to be hedonic (the kind of eating for pleasure that leads to obesity and is similar to addiction). Then it goes on to recommend the LEARN Diet for my genotype. Yet there is no clear answer on how exactly the company came to that assessment.

At one point, I hear Kim say in frustration, “Maybe they are just assuming nobody is going to actually look at what they are saying? You almost have to be a detective to sit down and figure this stuff out.”

* * *

“We try to be open and honest about where the science is,” says Corey McCarren, the chief operating officer for Titanovo. The company launched after a successful Kickstarter campaign last year. McCarren’s specialty is marketing, not genetics, but he notes that his founding partner and CEO, Oleksandr Savsunenko, has a Ph.D. in macromolecular chemistry from France’s Toulouse University, and created the company’s telomere length testing kit.

“The science is now in a place where there are very strong correlations” between particular gene variations and health outcomes, McCarren says. Big data—the analysis of large amounts of data to identify patterns and make predictions—is now being used in a multitude of industries, as McCarren points out. The company believes that big data can also be successfully “applied to genetics, using probabilistic approaches.”

Studies referenced on DNA Lifestyle Coach have been published in academic journals. But some research is better proven than others, he says, and the company tries to give weight to the stronger studies. The journals vary in distinction, the studies vary in size and scope, and some experiments have been replicated, while others–like this one on how cloudy apple juice may be healthier for some genotypes—have not.

The DNA Lifestyle Coach algorithm ranks studies, giving more weight to those that are more prominent or corroborated. As research results are updated, retracted, or reaffirmed, the algorithm will also revise and update the customer’s report. The company plans to release its mental wellness, dental, and skincare tests in a few months (so far you can just get results for diet fitness and telomeres).

In the future, it plans to incorporate personal data on every individual’s daily health behavior, if users opt in to answer questions about themselves, “much like Facebook and Google are taking all the big data from what people are doing online and making assumptions about people,” McCarren says. “That’s what we want to do. We want to discover those important correlations that will lead to people able to live their best lives.”

“We don’t show all the studies” that are referenced and averaged, Savsunenko explains, when I ask about the methodology. “The number of exact studies that we used and combined in order to generate the result — it is our proprietary thing. Although in reality most of the recommendations are based on the quite simple genetic and mathematical approaches.”

Fair enough. But the equations behind the inferences still feel a bit like voodoo.

Take my alcohol results: I will sober up quickly, and “alcohol consumption will likely lead to hangovers.” This is followed by 10 of my SNPs and links to six scholarly articles covering how genes are related to everything from drinking behavior and intensity, urges to drink, and alcoholism risk.

But DNA Lifestyle Coach fails to mention anything about the ALDH2 gene variant, which I already know I have, thanks to 23andMe. It causes a reaction known as “Asian flush.” My body lacks the enzyme that normally breaks down acetaldehyde, a toxic substance in alcohol. It builds up to abnormal levels even after half a glass of wine, causing the blood vessels in my face begin to expand. My skin turns the color of my merlot. My heart races. Within 15 minutes, my face and chest look hot to the touch, as if I accidentally fell asleep on the beach. People with this gene variant also have an increased risk for esophageal cancer.

Kim, who also experiences the same genetic pinkish glow when he drinks alcohol, was surprised my DNA Lifestyle Coach omitted it entirely.

When I ask Savsunenko about it, he replies that most people who have this gene already know they have it. “We are trying to get into smaller details of things. But, yeah, you are right—we should include it maybe.”

No matter what you include or omit, or how you add up and average it, genomic data interpretation is an ethically thorny and legally risky business. I wanted to know, not only if these algorithmic conclusions are safe, but if they are legal.

* * *

In the most romantic of gestures, my husband bought me a 23andMe saliva kit for my birthday in 2015. That was two years after 23andMe received an FDA warning to stop interpreting specific health data from its genetic tests.

Using a medical device like a DNA kit and relying on companies’, rather than doctors’, interpretations of our unsupervised genetic information from those kits, the FDA said, might lead a patient to undergo unnecessary surgeries to prevent cancer, increase or decrease doses or stop a doctor’s prescriptions and therapy altogether.

By the time I received my 23andMe results, the company had switched to focusing more on ancestry (it told me I am 50 percent East Asian and 50 percent European—no shocker), other traits like eye color (I’m likely to have dark-colored eyes—also duh), whether I can detect taste bitter or sweet tastes (it told me I like both), or if I’m more likely to sneeze in the sun (apparently I am). My report was mildly entertaining for a few hours, but it revealed no real life-altering information. I didn’t open it again until last month, when I dumped its contents into DNA Lifestyle Coach.

By then, the FDA had softened its stance on 23andMe’s tests and granted the company approval to tell its customers whether they have an increased risk for 10 specific conditions. These include Parkinson’s, late onset Alzheimer’s, Celiac disease, and a handful of other disorders that can affect movement, blood clotting, digestion or other health issues. My updated 23andMe report offered the reassuring words “variant not detected” alongside each of the conditions.

But in the years since the legal drama first began to unfold with 23andMe, other sites were ramping up, carefully tiptoeing around the kind of rules that could get them a cease and desist letter from the FDA.

DNA Lifestyle Coach has avoided this controversy, for now, by steering clear of medical discussions, McCarren tells me. When a genetic test company tells a customer: “You have nine times more likelihood of developing heart disease—take two aspirin a day,” he believes that is when the legal terrain gets murky. DNA Lifestyle Coach “is not a product to help you manage disease,” he says. “This is a product to help you make better lifestyle decisions.”

It’s not so different from seeking advice from a personal trainer at your gym, or a diet and fitness book on Amazon, McCarren says. Maybe you will see health improvements, maybe not, but you won’t get a medical diagnosis and you won’t risk doing any real harm. The difference, he adds, is “that there is strong enough evidence there to give people useful advice, which is better than just throwing a dart at a (diet) board and saying, ‘I’ll go with this one.’”

Most of these companies rely on similar data sets and “package it in different ways to try to make it understandable,” Barry Starr, another geneticist from Stanford University, tells me. “I was trying to think of a result that would make me change my lifestyle—I couldn’t think of one.”

There is just still so much geneticists still do not know, Starr says. Just because 23andMe cleared me of variants for 10 conditions does not at all mean I won’t still develop any one of them. One gene sequence is most likely part of an orchestra of a dozen or even a hundred others (many not yet identified)—all interacting to create a particular result. We also have gene sequences that protect us—which can counteract the “bad” SNP affects.

Your environment, the way you were reared and raised, and every choice you’ve made about your life until now may have had an impact on whether some of your genes are turned on, or “expressed” (as studied in the growing field of epigenetics). And Starr tells me that different DNA sequencing companies test different genes, which could lead to contradictory predictive health outlooks.

* * *

In the wake of the FDA’s 23andMe ban, Kim’s students became enamored by the debate over how much you have a right to know about your own genes. Some argued “I have a right to know. It’s my DNA. I’m allowed to use my brain to look at my own DNA,” Kim tells me. But others asserted that, “interpretation can go awry. Someone could make a stupid decision and hurt themselves.”

DNA Lifestyle Coach piques my interest enough to seek out more data. For just $5, I also sign up for Promethease, a genomic information clearinghouse. Again, I plug in my 23andMe raw results.

Promethease avoids the FDA regulations imposed upon 23andMe because it does not offer the spit kit. Promethease takes the raw results from 23andMe or Ancestry.com and runs it all against published academic genetic studies in SNPedia (created by the founders of Promethease), which is like a Wikipedia for genomic data, giving you a far more sweeping view of your DNA than either 23andMe or DNA Lifestyle Coach.

When I download my Promethease file, compiled on the screen before me into a mind-numbing document of multi-colored pie graphs, are 20,269 of my SNPs, looking for associations with everything from enhanced hippocampal volume, to better performing muscles, to worse hang overs, lack of empathy, longevity and gout. They are divided by colors: red for “bad” impact, green for “good,” and grey for “not set,” or not enough information to know.

In filtering first for only the “bad” as any morbidly curious person would (is there a SNP for that?) it seems my DNA is beset by perilous risks: melanoma, ovarian cancer, depression, obesity, schizophrenia, coronary artery disease, breast cancer, lung cancer, colorectal cancer, and of course Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s. Depending on how you look at my Promethease report, I’m also at risk for age-related macular degeneration, or I’m not. I’m at risk for developing Crohn’s Disease, or wait, maybe not. Different SNPs contradict each other.

Should I run this by a doctor? I wonder. Or a genetic counselor? What does one do with such a vomit pile of personal data?

It is this very conundrum that could give a company like DNA Lifestyle Coach—as its algorithms get more sophisticated—an upper hand with the public in the future. “We are focused on actionable results, McCarren says. “We assume our customers are not interested in just the genetic reports…we are not trying to overload you with the information.”

* * *

With my own DNA bible now at my fingertips, I still do not feel any more informed about my own health future than I did before. Despite DNA Lifestyle Coach’s fortune cookie-like predictions, I still embrace our inability to foretell most outcomes. My father has diabetes. My grandfather had heart disease. My grandmother had breast cancer. I always knew I could end up with each of these conditions, or I could dodge them altogether.

As dazzling as it is to see our DNA sequenced for so little cost, it is premature for us to map out life plans exclusively based on our genes. Of course, with science progressing so rapidly, that could change in years to come. My telomere test results, which took about two months to come back, indicate that I just might just live long enough to witness that future.

Longer telomeres have been associated with more resilient cellular health. My telomeres are longer than 59 percent of women of my age, according to the test results, which puts me in the “Very Good Zone.” It did not offer me any suggestions to improve my telomere length, although studies have found that meditation and reduced stress could have an impact. Instead, it gave me a calculation of my biological age (35), which is three years younger than my actual age. At the end of the results page, it also offered this caveat: “Keep in mind the full dynamics of telomere length have yet to be discovered.”

from Health News And Updates https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2017/06/can-your-dna-tell-you-the-healthiest-way-to-live-your-life/531885/?utm_source=feed

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ionecoffman · 8 years ago

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Can Your DNA Tell You the Healthiest Way to Live Your Life?

* * *

Fair enough. But the equations behind the inferences still feel a bit like voodoo.

Kim, who also experiences the same genetic pinkish glow when he drinks alcohol, was surprised my DNA Lifestyle Coach omitted it entirely.

* * *

DNA Lifestyle Coach piques my interest enough to seek out more data. For just $5, I also sign up for Promethease, a genomic information clearinghouse. Again, I plug in my 23andMe raw results.

Should I run this by a doctor? I wonder. Or a genetic counselor? What does one do with such a vomit pile of personal data?

* * *

Article source here:The Atlantic

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emmagreen1220-blog · 8 years ago

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New Post has been published on Biology Dictionary

New Post has been published on https://biologydictionary.net/biochemistry/

Biochemistry

Biochemistry Definition

Biochemistry is the study of the chemical reactions that take place inside organisms. It combines elements from both biology and chemistry. Biochemistry became a separate discipline in the early 20th Century. Biochemists study relatively large molecules like proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates, which are important in metabolism and other cellular activities; they also study molecules like enzymes and DNA.

History of Biochemistry

Biochemistry research has been done for around the past 400 years, although the term biochemistry itself was only coined in 1903 by the German chemist Carl Neuberg. The study of biochemistry essentially began with the invention of the microscope in 1665 by Robert Hooke. He was the first person to observe cells under a microscope, but they were dead cells; later on in 1674, Anton van Leeuwenhoek saw live plant cells under a microscope. Now that scientists had seen cells for the first time, they were eager to study them and discover more about the processes that occurred inside them. In the 18th Century, the French scientist Antoine Lavoisier proposed a reaction mechanism for photosynthesis, which is the process by which plants make their own food out of carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight, releasing oxygen in the process. He also was the first person to investigate the process of cell respiration, the process of making the energy molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in the mitochondria of the cell.

In the 19th Century, a prevailing belief was that protoplasm, the jelly-like inside of the cell, carried out all of the processes involved with breaking down food molecules. It was believed that the chemistry of living organisms was inherently different from that of non-living ones. In 1897, Eduard Buchner performed an experiment that would change this view. He prepared an extract from yeast that he called zymase. Although zymase did not contain any living yeast cells, it could still ferment glucose to produce carbon dioxide and ethanol. Following Buchner’s convention, enzymes began to be named for the reaction they carried out; for example, DNA polymerase polymerizes DNA. (Zymase was later found to be multiple enzymes.)

In the 20th Century, further advancements were made. Hans Krebs discovered the citric acid cycle (which would also become known as the Krebs cycle), a series of chemical reactions during cellular respiration where glucose and oxygen are converted to ATP, carbon dioxide, and water. Also, DNA became known as the genetic material of the cell and its structure was identified by James Watson and Francis Crick from previous research done by Rosalind Franklin. Presently, newer technology such as recombinant DNA, gene splicing, radioisotopic labelling, and electron microscopy are advancing scientific knowledge further than ever before.

Biochemistry Research

Topics in biochemistry research include enzyme mechanisms and kinetics, the making of proteins from DNA, RNA, and amino acids through the processes of transcription and translation, and the metabolic processes of cells. Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, which is the study of biological molecules such as DNA, proteins, and other macromolecules. Molecular biology techniques are often used to study biochemistry, along with techniques from other fields like immunology and physics. Since all life can be broken down into small molecules and chemical reactions, biochemistry is a broad science that is used in studying all types of biology, from botany to molecular genetics to pharmacology. Chemical reactions in cells are emphasized, but specific research topics can vary widely. For example, biochemists may be interested in researching the chemical reactions that occur in the brain (thereby connecting biochemistry with neurochemistry), how cells divide and differentiate, cell communication, the chemical basis of genetic inheritance, or how diseases such as cancer spread.

Biochemistry Careers

This is an image of a biochemist working in a laboratory.

Biochemistry is a laboratory science. To work in the field of biochemistry, an individual must be interested in conducting research, and should obtain at least a bachelor’s degree. Many biochemists teach and are principal investigators of research laboratories at universities; these positions require PhDs. While most biochemists with PhDs conduct research, some are academic lecturers and solely teach at universities. However, these biochemists also had to do research throughout graduate school in order to complete their PhD thesis. Other biochemists are lab managers, which requires a master’s degree. With a bachelor’s degree, one may become a scientific research technician. The more education an individual has, generally the more independence they will have in a lab. Technicians carry out bench work and help perform experiments that a principal investigator designs. A lab manager has more responsibilities than a technician and may do independent research projects under the guidance of a principal investigator. Aside from academia, biochemists also work in industry positions. They may work in government laboratories or for a variety of companies including agricultural, pharmaceutical, public health, or biotechnology companies. Others provide specific services such as toxicology or forensics.

In order to be a competent biochemist, one must be interested in biology or chemistry research and learn proper laboratory skills and safety procedures. It is also important to have an aptitude for mathematics and statistics, and be able to analyze the data generated from experiments. The ability to think outside the box and brainstorm new ideas is important for designing experiments. Biochemists must also keep up with the scientific literature by reading recent publications in scientific journals and attending conferences. Although it takes a lot of hard work, training, and study, biochemists are able to uncover new information about the chemistry of living things and contribute to advancing scientific knowledge.

Biochemistry Major

Students interested in becoming biochemists need to take many science courses during their time as an undergraduate. General knowledge of both biology and chemistry is essential. Many schools offer biochemistry as a specific major. It is also possible to become a biochemist after obtaining a biology or chemistry bachelor’s degree, but one needs to make sure that they have a good background in the subject they are not majoring in; i.e., an undergraduate majoring in biology needs to take chemistry courses (this is usually a requirement of all undergraduate biology majors), and an undergraduate majoring in chemistry should also take biology courses. Of course, there are also specifically biochemistry courses that students should take. Additionally, it is important to be well versed in mathematics and physics.

As students advance in their undergraduate career, they will take more specific science courses based on their specific interests. For example, they could take classes in botany, molecular biology, biophysics, biomedical sciences, or structural biology (how molecules are organized into cells and tissues), depending on where their research interests lie.

References

n.a. (n.d.) “Biochemistry.” Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 2017-04-25 from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/biochemistry.

n.a. (n.d.) “Biochemistry Major.” MyMajors. Retrieved 2017-04-27 from https://www.mymajors.com/college-majors/biochemistry/.

n.a. (n.d.) “History of Biology: Biochemistry.” BiologyReference.com. Retrieved 2017-04-26 from http://www.biologyreference.com/Gr-Hi/History-of-Biology-Biochemistry.html.

n.a. (n.d.) “Molecular Biology.” The American Heritage® New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition. Retrieved 2017-04-26 from http://www.dictionary.com/browse/molecular-biology.

n.a. (n.d.) “What is Biochemistry?” McGill University. Retrieved 2017-04-26 from https://www.mcgill.ca/biochemistry/about-us/information/biochemistry.

n.a. (2017-08-04). “History of Biochemistry.” Bio Explorer. Retrieved 2017-04-26 from http://www.bioexplorer.net/history_of_biology/biochemistry/.

AGCAS Editors. (2016-08). “Biochemistry”. Graduate Prospects Ltd. Retrieved 2017-04-27 from https://www.prospects.ac.uk/careers-advice/what-can-i-do-with-my-degree/biochemistry.

Zeigler, Mary (Rev.). (n.d.). “Guide to Biochemistry Careers.” InnerBody.com. Retrieved 2017-04-27 from http://www.innerbody.com/careers-in-health/guide-to-biochemistry-careers.html.

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